Percentiles of body mass index and waist circumference for Costa Rican children and adolescents.

Introduction: Introduction: body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) are anthropometric indicators used to define overweight/obesity and to predict the risk of cardiovascular disease, respectively, in adolescents and children. Objectives: to describe and provide estimations of BMI and WC distribution according to percentiles in a sample of Costa Rican students, and to test group differences at the 50th percentile with the international references by the National Center for Health Statistics of the United States of America in 2012, 2016 and 2021. Material and methods: a cross-sectional and descriptive study was carried out with 2,684 students from 7 to 17 years of age in 64 educational centers of Costa Rica. The weight of the students was determined with a Tanita model SC-331 S, and height was measured with a SECA stadiometer, model 217, to estimate BMI. To determine abdominal circumference a measuring tape was used. All procedures were approved by the INCIENSA Scientific Ethics Committee. The statistical analysis of the data was made with the SPSS 22.0 package. Results: the first percentile distribution of BMI and WC is provided. According to BMI, 16.3 % of the student population had obesity and 26.2 % had overweight. WC values increased over the years and some significant differences were found between genders. The BMI and WC curves of Costa Rican children showed patterns similar to the three international references they were compared to. Conclusions: obesity has become the main nutritional problem in Costa Rica. The BMI and WC trend graphs proposed in this study are a useful public health tool to monitor the overweight/obesity epidemic.

Introducción: Introducción: el índice de masa corporal (IMC) y la circunferencia de la cintura (CC) son indicadores antropométricos utilizados para definir el sobrepeso/la obesidad y para predecir el riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular, respectivamente, en la población infanto-juvenil. Objetivo: describir y proporcionar estimaciones de la distribución del IMC y la CC según percentiles en una muestra de estudiantes de Costa Rica y probar las diferencias de grupo en el percentil 50 con las referencias internacionales del Centro Nacional de Referencia de Estadísticas de Salud de los Estados Unidos de América de 2012, 2016 y 2021. Materiales y métodos: estudio transversal y descriptivo realizado con 2684 estudiantes de 7 a 17 años de edad de 64 centros educativos de Costa Rica. El peso de los estudiantes se determinó con un equipo Tanita modelo SC-331 S y la talla se midió con un estadiómetro marca SECA, modelo 217, para estimar el IMC. Para determinar la circunferencia abdominal se usó una cinta métrica. Todos los procedimientos fueron aprobados por el Comité Ético Científico del INCIENSA. El análisis estadístico de los datos se realizó con el paquete informático SPSS 22.0. Resultados: se proporciona la primera distribución percentilar del IMC y de la CC. De acuerdo con el IMC, el 16,3 % de la población estudiantil presentó obesidad y el 26,2 % sobrepeso. Los valores de CC aumentan con los años y, al compararlos por sexos, se encontraron algunas diferencias significativas. Las curvas costarricenses para el IMC y la CC mostraron patrones similares a los de las tres referencias internacionales utilizadas para comparar. Conclusiones: la obesidad se ha convertido en el principal problema nutricional en Costa Rica. Las gráficas de tendencias del IMC y de la CC expuestas en el presente estudio son una herramienta útil para la salud pública con el fin de monitorear la epidemia de sobrepeso/obesidad.

Percentiles of body mass index and waist circumference for Costa Rican children and adolescents / Percentiles de índice de masa corporal y circunferencia de la cintura en niños y adolescentes de Costa Rica

Introduction: body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) are anthropometric indicators used to define overweight/obesity and to predict the risk of cardiovascular disease, respectively, in adolescents and children. Objectives: to describe and provide estimations of BMI and WC distribution according to percentiles in a sample of Costa Rican students, and to test group differences at the 50th percentile with the international references by the National Center for Health Statistics of the united States of America in 2012, 2016 and 2021. Material and methods: a cross-sectional and descriptive study was carried out with 2,684 students from 7 to 17 years of age in 64 educational centers of Costa Rica. The weight of the students was determined with a Tanita model SC-331 S, and height was measured with a SECA stadiometer, model 217, to estimate BMI. To determine abdominal circumference a measuring tape was used. All procedures were approved by the INCIENSA Scientific Ethics Committee. The statistical analysis of the data was made with the SPSS 22.0 package. Results: the first percentile distribution of BMI and WC is provided. According to BMI, 16.3 % of the student population had obesity and 26.2 % had overweight. WC values increased over the years and some significant differences were found between genders. The BMI and WC curves of Costa Rican children showed patterns similar to the three international references they were compared to. Conclusions: obesity has become the main nutritional problem in Costa Rica. The BMI and WC trend graphs proposed in this study are a useful public health tool to monitor the overweight/obesity epidemic. (AU)

Introducción: el índice de masa corporal (IMC) y la circunferencia de la cintura (CC) son indicadores antropométricos utilizados para definir el sobrepeso/la obesidad y para predecir el riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular, respectivamente, en la población infanto-juvenil. Objetivo: describir y proporcionar estimaciones de la distribución del IMC y la CC según percentiles en una muestra de estudiantes de Costa Rica y probar las diferencias de grupo en el percentil 50 con las referencias internacionales del Centro Nacional de Referencia de Estadísticas de Salud de los Estados unidos de América de 2012, 2016 y 2021. Materiales y métodos: estudio transversal y descriptivo realizado con 2684 estudiantes de 7 a 17 años de edad de 64 centros educativos de Costa Rica. El peso de los estudiantes se determinó con un equipo Tanita modelo SC-331 S y la talla se midió con un estadiómetro marca SECA, modelo 217, para estimar el IMC. Para determinar la circunferencia abdominal se usó una cinta métrica. Todos los procedimientos fueron aprobados por el Comité Ético Científico del INCIENSA. El análisis estadístico de los datos se realizó con el paquete informático SPSS 22.0. Resultados: se proporciona la primera distribución percentilar del IMC y de la CC. De acuerdo con el IMC, el 16,3 % de la población estudiantil presentó obesidad y el 26,2 % sobrepeso. Los valores de CC aumentan con los años y, al compararlos por sexos, se encontraron algunas diferencias significativas. Las curvas costarricenses para el IMC y la CC mostraron patrones similares a los de las tres referencias internacionales utilizadas para comparar. Conclusiones: la obesidad se ha convertido en el principal problema nutricional en Costa Rica. Las gráficas de tendencias del IMC y de la CC expuestas en el presente estudio son una herramienta útil para la salud pública con el fin de monitorear la epidemia de sobrepeso/obesidad. (AU)

Prevalencia de la deficiencia de vitamina D en niños de Costa Rica / Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Costa Rican children

Abstract Objective: To determine the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in children in the South- Central Region of Costa Rica. Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed with Costa Rican children aged 1-7 years from the South-Central Region of the country belonging to the Nutrition and Education Centers and Children's Nutrition and Comprehensive Care Centers. Serum samples were collected from all participants between August 2014 and May 2016 and stored at -80 ° C. Vitamin D status was assessed by immunoassay on an ARCHITECT Plus i1000 instrument. Descriptive statistics were performed with the SPSS statistical software package (V20, IBM Corp). A value of p˂0.05 was considered significant. Spearman and Pearson correlation were also performed to study the association between vitamin D status, anthropometric and hematological variables. Results: Atotal of 428 sampleswere analyzed.According to the cut-off points establishedby the Endocrine Society, 4.9% of the children tested presented deficiency, 50.2% had insufficiency and 44.9% had vitamin D sufficiency. The mean concentration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the studied population was 29.7 ng/mL (SD 6.5) in boys and 29.8 ng/mL (SD 7.0) in girls. A high prevalence of hypovitaminosis D (55.1 %) was found, but only 7.9 % of the children presented 25-hydroxyvitamin D ≤ 20 ng/mL. No correlation was found between vitamin D status and any of the evaluated anthropometric or hematological variables. Conclusions: More than half of the young population presented hypovitaminosis-D. Therefore, in order to overcome this situation, the recommendation is to supplement the population with vitamin D and improve its fortification in widespread accessible food in Costa Rica.

Resumen Objetivo: Determinar la prevalencia de la deficiencia de vitamina D en niños de la Región Central Sur de Costa Rica. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio transversal con niños de 1-7 años de la Región Central Sur de Costa Rica pertenecientes a los Centros de Educación y Nutrición y Centros de Atención Integral y Nutrición Infantil. Se recolectaron muestras de suero de todos los participantes entre agosto de 2014 y mayo de 2016 y se almacenaron a -80 ° C hasta su uso. Se evaluó las concentraciones de vitamina D mediante un inmunoensayo con el instrumento ARCHITECT Plus i1000. Los análisis estadísticos descriptivos se realizaron con el paquete de software estadístico SPSS (V20, IBM Corp). Se consideró significativo un valor de p <0,05. También se realizó la correlación de Spearman y Pearson para estudiar la asociación entre el estatus de vitamina D con variables antropométricas y hematológicas. Resultados: Se analizaron un total de 428 muestras. Un 4,9% de los niños presentaban deficiencia, 50,2% insuficiencia y el 44,9% suficiencia de vitamina D, según los puntos de corte establecidos por Endocrine Society. La concentración media de 25-hidroxi vitamina D en la población estudiada fue de 29,7 ng/mL (DE 6,5) en niños y de 29,8 ng/ mL (DE 7,0) en niñas. Se encontró una alta prevalencia de hipovitaminosis D (55,1%), pero solo el 7,9% de los niños presentó 25- hidroxi vitamina D ≤ 20 ng/mL. No se encontró correlación del estatus de vitamina D con ninguna de las variables antropométricas o hematológicas evaluadas. Conclusiones: Más de lamitad de la población infantil evaluada presentó hipovitaminosis D. Por lo tanto, se recomienda suplementar y mejorar la fortificación con vitamina D en alimentos ampliamente accesibles en la población costarricense.

New Diet Quality Index for children and adolescents in Costa Rica / Nuevo Índice de Calidad de la Dieta de niños y adolescentes en Costa Rica

Introduction: there is an increasing interest in the study of total diet quality indicators through the study of food groups in certain dietary patterns. Objective: to analyze the diet of students in Costa Rica with construction of a contextualized new diet quality index. Material and methods: a cross-sectional study was performed in a population of 2,677 students from 64 educational centers. Data on habits and food intake frequency were collected through interviews and questionnaires. A new Diet Quality Index was constructed and applied, which assessed the adjustment of intake frequency for 22 food groups, corrected with five preventive dietary factors and five risk factors for chronic non-communicable diseases. Descriptive statistics were evaluated using the program SPSS, version 24.0. A p-value ? 0.05 was considered significant. Results: the population was made up of 1,259 (43%) men and 1,418 women (57%). According to the new Diet Quality Index-Costa Rica classification, 1.2% (n = 33) of participants have a healthy diet; 9.0% (n = 239) require dietary changes, and 89.8% (n = 2 395) have an unhealthy diet because of excessive intake of processed foods (rich in sodium and fat) and a low consumption of fruits and vegetables. Significant differences were found in the averages of the Diet Quality Index-Costa Rica by sex, educational level, and socioeconomic status. Conclusions: around 90% of the studied population do not comply with the recommendations issued for a healthy diet. Nutritional education should be strengthened in Costa Rican education centers

Introducción: existe un interés creciente en el estudio de los indicadores de la calidad de la dieta total a través del estudio de grupos de alimentos. Objetivo: analizar la dieta de los estudiantes de Costa Rica con la construcción de un índice de calidad de la dieta contextualizado y nuevo. Material y métodos: se realizó un estudio transversal con una población de 2677 estudiantes de 64 centros educativos. Los datos sobre hábitos y frecuencia de la ingesta de alimentos se recopilaron a través de entrevistas y cuestionarios. Se construyó y aplicó un nuevo Índice de Calidad de la Dieta, que evaluó el ajuste de la frecuencia de la ingesta de 22 grupos de alimentos corregidos con cinco factores dietéticos preventivos y cinco factores de riesgo para enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles. Se realizaron estadísticas descriptivas con el programa SPSS, versión 24.0. Se consideró significativo todo valor de p < 0,05. Resultados: la población estaba compuesta por 1259 (43 %) hombres y 1418 mujeres (57 %). De acuerdo con la nueva clasificación del Índice de Calidad de la Dieta-Costa Rica, el 1,2 % (n = 33) de los participantes tienen una dieta saludable, el 9,0 % (n = 239) requieren cambios y el 89,8 % (n = 2 395) tienen una dieta poco saludable debido a la ingesta excesiva de alimentos procesados (ricos en sodio y grasas) y al bajo consumo de frutas y vegetales. Se encontraron diferencias significativas en los promedios del Índice de Calidad de la Dieta-Costa Rica por sexo, nivel educativo y clase socioeconómica. Conclusiones: alrededor del 90 % de la población estudiada no cumple con las recomendaciones para llevar una dieta saludable. La educación nutricional debe fortalecerse en los centros educativos costarricenses

New Diet Quality Index for children and adolescents in Costa Rica.

INTRODUCTION: Introduction: there is an increasing interest in the study of total diet quality indicators through the study of food groups in certain dietary patterns. Objective: to analyze the diet of students in Costa Rica with construction of a contextualized new diet quality index. Material and methods: a cross-sectional study was performed in a population of 2,677 students from 64 educational centers. Data on habits and food intake frequency were collected through interviews and questionnaires. A new Diet Quality Index was constructed and applied, which assessed the adjustment of intake frequency for 22 food groups, corrected with five preventive dietary factors and five risk factors for chronic non-communicable diseases. Descriptive statistics were evaluated using the program SPSS, version 24.0. A p-value ˂ 0.05 was considered significant. Results: the population was made up of 1,259 (43%) men and 1,418 women (57%). According to the new Diet Quality Index-Costa Rica classification, 1.2% (n = 33) of participants have a healthy diet; 9.0% (n = 239) require dietary changes, and 89.8% (n = 2 395) have an unhealthy diet because of excessive intake of processed foods (rich in sodium and fat) and a low consumption of fruits and vegetables. Significant differences were found in the averages of the Diet Quality Index-Costa Rica by sex, educational level, and socioeconomic status. Conclusions: around 90% of the studied population do not comply with the recommendations issued for a healthy diet. Nutritional education should be strengthened in Costa Rican education centers.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Introducción: existe un interés creciente en el estudio de los indicadores de la calidad de la dieta total a través del estudio de grupos de alimentos. Objetivo: analizar la dieta de los estudiantes de Costa Rica con la construcción de un índice de calidad de la dieta contextualizado y nuevo. Material y métodos: se realizó un estudio transversal con una población de 2677 estudiantes de 64 centros educativos. Los datos sobre hábitos y frecuencia de la ingesta de alimentos se recopilaron a través de entrevistas y cuestionarios. Se construyó y aplicó un nuevo Índice de Calidad de la Dieta, que evaluó el ajuste de la frecuencia de la ingesta de 22 grupos de alimentos corregidos con cinco factores dietéticos preventivos y cinco factores de riesgo para enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles. Se realizaron estadísticas descriptivas con el programa SPSS, versión 24.0. Se consideró significativo todo valor de p ˂ 0,05. Resultados: la población estaba compuesta por 1259 (43%) hombres y 1418 mujeres (57%). De acuerdo con la nueva clasificación del Índice de Calidad de la Dieta-Costa Rica, el 1,2% (n = 33) de los participantes tienen una dieta saludable, el 9,0% (n = 239) requieren cambios y el 89,8% (n = 2 395) tienen una dieta poco saludable debido a la ingesta excesiva de alimentos procesados (ricos en sodio y grasas) y al bajo consumo de frutas y vegetales. Se encontraron diferencias significativas en los promedios del Índice de Calidad de la Dieta-Costa Rica por sexo, nivel educativo y clase socioeconómica. Conclusiones: alrededor del 90% de la población estudiada no cumple con las recomendaciones para llevar una dieta saludable. La educación nutricional debe fortalecerse en los centros educativos costarricenses.

Disfunción tiroidea subclínica en población adulta costarricense / Subclinical thyroid dysfunction in adult Costa Rican population

La disfunción tiroidea subclínica es un desorden común que puede representar la etapa temprana de una franca enfermedad tiroidea. Objetivo. Conocer la prevalencia de disfunción tiroidea subclínica en una población de adultos costarricenses. Diseño. Investigación de tipo transversal y descriptiva. Lugar. El estudio se realizó en el área urbana de Costa Rica. Participantes. Adultos costarricenses de un área urbana de Costa Rica. Intervenciones: A 297 individuos de ambos géneros con edades entre 30 y 87 años se les preguntó sobre historia familiar de hipertensión arterial, fracturas y diabetes mellitus, enfermedad tiroidea o cardiovascular y obesidad. En ellos se analizó TSH, T4 y T3 total, fracción T4 libre, glucosa y perfil lipídico. Resultados. El 15,7 por ciento de los participantes en este estudio presentó disfunción tiroidea subclínica. La prevalencia de hipertiroidismo subclínico fue 3,9 por ciento y la de hipotiroidismo subclínico 11,8 por ciento, siendo esta 3 veces más frecuente en mujeres que en hombres. Cerca del 50 por ciento del total de los participantes del estudio presentó sobrepeso u obesidad, independientemente de su estado tiroideo. Conclusiones. En Costa Rica no hay una identificación temprana ni una política para el manejo del paciente con disfunción tiroidea subclínica...

Subclinical thyroid dysfunction is a common disorder which may represent the early stage of a thyroid disease. Objective. To determine the prevalence of subclinical thyroid dysfunction in an adult population. Design. Cross-sectional descriptive study. Setting. Urban area of Costa Rica. Participants. Costa Rica urban area adult population. Interventions. Family history of hypertension, fractures and diabetes mellitus, thyroid or cardiovascular disease and obesity were investigated in 297 individuals of both genders aged 30 to 87 years. TSH, total T4 and T3, free T4 fraction, glucose and lipid profile were analyzed. Results. Subclinical thyroid dysfunction was found in 15.7 per cent of participants including subclinical hyperthyroidism in 3.9 per cent and subclinical hypothyroidism in 11.8 per cent, 3 times more prevalent in women than in men. About 50 per cent of all participants were overweight or obese, regardless of thyroid status. Conclusions. In Costa Rica there is no policy of early identification or management of patients with subclinical thyroid dysfunction...

Niveles séricos de lipoproteína (a), apoproteínas A1 y B100 y otros factores de riesgo cardiovascular en una población de adultos del área urbana de san josé, Costa Rica / Serum levels of lipoprotein (a), apolipoproteins A1 and B100, and other cardiovascular risk factors in an adult population of the urban area of san jose, Costa Rica

Introducción y objetivos: La enfermedad cardiovascular es la primera causa de muerte en Costa Rica, razón por la cual seplantea el estudio de nuevos factores de riesgo en una población adulta de la provincia de San José.Métodos: Este estudio evaluó las concentraciones séricas del perfil lipídico, glucosa, lipoproteína (a), apoproteínas A1, B100y otros factores de riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular en una población de 430 adultos con edades entre los 20 y 60años del área metropolitana de San José, Costa Rica.Resultados: La prevalencia de hiperlipoproteinemia (a) (≥ 0,3 g/L), hiperapoproteinemia B (> 0,65 g/L), hipercolesterolemia(> 5,17mmol/L), intolerancia a la glucosa (5,55-6,98 mmol/L) y diabetes mellitus (≥ 6,99 mmol/L) en la población es de67,8%, 87,4%, 46,3%, 14,2% y 5,7% respectivamente, sin diferencias significativas por sexo. La prevalencia de hipertrigliceridemia(>1,69 mmol/L) en la población es de 45,3%, siendo significativamente mayor en hombres que en mujeres (53,4%vs 37,2%; p = 0,001). Un porcentaje considerable de la población estudiada con niveles elevados de lipoproteína (a) (n =313) mostró simultáneamente uno o varios parámetros del perfil lipídico y la glucosa elevados. El 52,1 % presentó colesteroltotal ≥ 5,17 mmol/L; 44,4% triglicéridos ≥ 1,69 mmol/L; 25,2% HDL-colesterol < 1,03 mmol/L; 67,4 % LDL-colesterol ≥2,58 mmol/L, 45,0 % índice de Castelli ≥ 4,5, 17,9% glucosa ≥ 5,55 mmol/L y 88,8% apoproteína B > 0,65g/L. La prevalenciade síndrome metabólico en la población en estudio y según los criterios diagnósticos establecidos por la OrganizaciónMundial de la Salud es de 4,2%, fue mayor entre el género masculino (7,3% vs 1,7%; p = 0,008)...

Introduction and objectives: Cardiovascular disease is the first death cause in Costa Rica. This investigation proposes thestudy of new risk factors in an adult population of the province of San José.Methods: This study evaluated the lipid profile, glucose and other related cardiovascular risk factors in 430 adults aged20 to 60 years, residents of the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica.Results: The prevalences of hyperlipoprotein (a) (≥ 0,3 g/L), hyperapoprotein B (> 0,65 g/L), hypercholesterolemia (> 5,17mmol/L), impaired glucose tolerance (5,55-6,98 mmol/L) and diabetes mellitus (≥ 6,99 mmol/L) were 67,8%, 87,4%, 46,3%, 14,2% and 5,7% respectively, without significant differences between genders. The prevalence of hypertriglyceridemia(>1, 69 mmol/L) was 45,3%, being higher among the male population (53,4% vs. 37,2%; p = 0,001). A significantpercentage of the people included in this study had simultaneously high levels of lipoprotein (a) (n =313) and high levelsof another coronary risk factors such as: high cholesterol (52,1% had levels ≥ 5,17 mmol/L); high triglycerides (44,4% hadlevels ≥ 1,69 mmol/L); low HDL-cholesterol (25,2% had levels < 1,03 mmol/L); high LDL-cholesterol (67,4% had levels ≥2,58 mmol/L), high Castelli Index (45,0% had levels ≥ 4,5) , high glucose (17,9% had levels ≥ 5,55 mmol/L) and finally highlevels of apoprotein B (88,8% had levels > 0,65 g/L). The prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the studied population,according to the World Health Organization diagnostic criteria, was 4,2%, being higher among the male group (7,3% vs.1,7%; p = 0,008)...

Las creencias de la docente de educación física sobre la obesidad en la niñez de edad escolar

Trata de comprender cómo las creencias del personal docente de educación física (EF) acerca de la obesidad de los niños en edad escolar, favorecen u obstaculizan la prevención de esta condición. Se empleó el método etnográfico en una escuela urbana pública. Las técnicas de recolección de datos fueron observación, entrevistas a profundidad, grupos focales y análisis documental. Éstas permitieron recoger datos abundantes y ricos de significados, que al ser triangulados por fuentes le dieron validez a los resultados de la investigación. Hallazgos informan sobre la actividad física limitada al ámbito áulico, la obesidad como condición que dificulta la participación de los niños y niñas en EF, la exclusión de niños con obesidad en la práctica de esta asignatura, el privilegio que da la docente a los estudiantes con menos dificultad en la actividad física y su desatención a los que requieren más apoyo, y cómo sus estudiantes modelan sus creencias.

Las creencias sobre obesidad de niños y niñas en edad escolar y las de sus progenitores

Se evidencia, mediante el método etnográfico, las creencias sobre la obesidad de los niños en edad escolar y las de sus progenitores, pertenecientes a una escuela urbana y pública de San José, Costa Rica. Los resultados apuntan hacia las creencias negativas de la niñez respecto a sus pares con obesidad y sus implicaciones psicosociales y afectivas. En relación con los progenitores se señalan las causas y estrategias de control, las implicaciones de la obesidad, referente a enfermedades físicas y emocionales, así como el papel del hogar y de la escuela en su prevención. Se concluye que los niños creen que la obesidad no es una enfermedad, sino una expresión fenotípica, a la cual le dan grado de relatividad o de escala y la consideran no deseable, resultado que concuerda con la de sus progenitores. Las niñas participantes con obesidad expresaron sus posiciones de defensa y molestia, en relación con experiencias burlescas. Al contrario de sus hijos e hijas, la mayoría de los progenitores sí cree que la obesidad es una enfermedad o un problema de salud o de estética. Además, estiman que ésta se controla mediante una dieta saludable y equilibrada, así como dar consejos sobre las consecuencias físicas y emocionales de la obesidad y al ofrecer modelos de personas saludables. Por lo tanto, los progenitores y el personal docente creen que la escuela poco puede hacer respecto a la alimentación saludable del alumnado, pues el hogar es el lugar que tiene un papel primordial

Components of the metabolic syndrome among a sample of overweight and obese Costa Rican schoolchildren.

BACKGROUND: The term "pediatric metabolic syndrome" includes a cluster of cardiovascular risk factors such as insulin resistance, dyslipidemia (including increased triglycerides and decreased HDL cholesterol), hypertension, and obesity in children. No studies have been performed on this syndrome in a pediatric population in Costa Rica. OBJECTIVE: To establish the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its components in 8- to 10-year-old prepuberal overweight and obese schoolchildren. METHODS: This cross-sectional survey was conducted in 214 overweight and obese boys and girls, aged 8 to 10 years, who were selected from six urban schools from San José, Costa Rica. Anthropometric measurements and determinations of blood glucose, insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) were performed. The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) index and the Castelli index were calculated to assess insulin resistance and cardiovascular risk, respectively. Social and lifestyle variables were obtained through validated questionnaires. RESULTS: A total of 110 boys and 104 girls participated in this study; 37.9% of them were overweight and 62.1% were obese. Compared with boys, girls were more sedentary and had higher insulin levels (16.05 +/- 10.45 microIU/ mL vs. 12.72 +/- 7.63 microIU/mL, p = .008), body fat (36.5% vs. 30.9%, p < .001), and HOMA-IR indexes (3.5 +/- 2.4 vs. 2.8 +/- 1.7, p = .014) but lower HDL cholesterol (0.99 +/- 0.23 mmol/L vs. 1.08 +/- 0.27 mmol/L, p = .009). Obese children had significantly higher mean serum concentrations of insulin, hs-CRP, and triglycerides and higher insulin resistance (estimated by HOMA-IR) than overweight children, but lower mean serum levels of HDL cholesterol. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the study population was 5.6%. Other risk factors for developing cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes had high prevalence rates among the children: sedentarism (40.6%),family history of type 2 diabetes (73.3%), high LDL cholesterol levels (> or = 2.84 mmol/L) (57.0%), hyperinsulinemia (> 10.5 microIU/mL) (59.8%), insulin resistance (estimated by HOMA-IR > or = 2.4) (55.1%), and total cholesterol (> 4.39 mmol/L) (60.7%). Children with metabolic syndrome had significantly higher body mass indexes, glucose levels, and triglyceride levels and lower HDL cholesterol levels than children without metabolic syndrome. Insulin had a very strong positive correlation with HOMA-IR values (r = 0.982), and hs-CRP had a mild positive correlation with body mass index (r = 0.296) and body fat (r = 0.320). CONCLUSIONS: This study reported a prevalence of 5.6% of metabolic syndrome among a sample of Costa Rican overweight and obese prepuberal children. Lifestyle interventions focusing on weight reduction and increasing physical activities should be promoted by education and health authorities in order to avoid the early development and onset of type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis in childhood.

Insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance in overweight and obese Costa Rican schoolchildren.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide obesity has become an unprecedented public health challenge. In addition, a notable increase in the risk of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus has emerged. In Costa Rica, there are no epidemiological data to establish the prevalence of type 2 diabetes in the pediatric population. However, information from the Endocrinology Department of the Children's National Hospital indicates an increased number of cases in the last 2 to 3 years. OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance in overweight and obese schoolchildren. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted among 214 healthy 8- to 10-year-old children from urban schools of San José, Costa Rica. Anthropometric measurements and blood determinations of glucose, insulin, proinsulin, glycosylated hemoglobin, C-peptide, and leptin were performed. Indexes were calculated to assess insulin resistance. Information on social and lifestyle variables was obtained from questionnaires, and acanthosis nigricans was certified by a physician. Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS software for Windows, version 10.0. RESULTS: The prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus was very low (0.5%) in the studied population. However, hyperinsulinemia and impaired glucose tolerance were present in 20.6% and 6.5% of the subjects, respectively. On the basis of the Fasting Glucose-to-Insulin Resistance Ratio (FGIR), 46.7% of the children showed insulin resistance. Girls and obese children (body mass index > or = 95th percentile) were more likely to have higher serum insulin levels and insulin resistance than boys and overweight children (BMI > or = 85th percentile). Compared with the lowest quintile, children in the highest quintile of body-fat tissue had higher insulin resistance but had similar serum concentrations of glucose, C-peptide, and proinsulin. Positive family histories of type 2 diabetes mellitus and sedentarism (73.7% and 40.7%, respectively) were highly prevalent among overweight and obese children. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance and insulin resistance in obese children indicates a worrisome trend in the incidence of type 2 diabetes in Costa Rica. Strategies for weight reduction, obesity prevention, and promotion of healthy lifestyles are necessary to prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes during childhood and adolescence.

Prevalence of mild serum vitamin B12 deficiency in rural and urban Costa Rican young adults.

OBJECTIVE: Recent studies have shown an increase of mild serum cobalamin (vitamin B12) deficiency in some Latin American countries; however, no data are available from Costa Rica. The purpose of this work was to establish the prevalence of serum vitamin B12 deficiency among Costa Rican young adults and to study some factors that may help explain the serum cobalamin concentrations. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 400 adults aged 20 to 40 years old from urban and rural areas of the central valley of Costa Rica to determine serum vitamin B12 levels. Additionally, cobalamin dietary intake and the detection of Helicobacter pylori IgG antibodies were studied as possible determinants of the serum vitamin B12 concentrations. RESULTS: The mean serum concentration of vitamin B12 was 268 ± 125 pmol/L, and no significant differences were found by gender or area. Study data indicate an overall prevalence of inadequate serum cobalamin levels of 42.4% (11.2% deficient and 31.2% marginal); more than 50% but less than 75% of individuals had an intake of vitamin B12 below the U.S. Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and 61.2% had IgG antibodies to H. pylori. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of mild serum vitamin B12 deficiency in young Costa Rican subjects is as high as in other Latin American countries. More investigation should be done to elucidate the etiological factors that are generating deficient and marginal serum cobalamin levels in Costa Rican adults in order to define appropriate public health actions.

Prevalence of mild serum vitamin B12 deficiency in rural and urban Costa Rican young adults / Prevalencia de la deficiencia moderada de vitamina B12 sérica en jóvenes adultos de zonas rurales y urbanas de Costa Rica

OBJECTIVE: Recent studies have shown an increase of mild serum cobalamin (vitamin B12) deficiency in some Latin American countries; however, no data are available from Costa Rica. The purpose of this work was to establish the prevalence of serum vitamin B12 deficiency among Costa Rican young adults and to study some factors that may help explain the serum cobalamin concentrations. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 400 adults aged 20 to 40 years old from urban and rural areas of the central valley of Costa Rica to determine serum vitamin B12 levels. Additionally, cobalamin dietary intake and the detection of Helicobacter pylori IgG antibodies were studied as possible determinants of the serum vitamin B12 concentrations. RESULTS: The mean serum concentration of vitamin B12 was 268 ± 125 pmol/L, and no significant differences were found by gender or area. Study data indicate an overall prevalence of inadequate serum cobalamin levels of 42.4 percent (11.2 percent deficient and 31.2 percent marginal); more than 50 percent but less than 75 percent of individuals had an intake of vitamin B12 below the U.S. Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and 61.2 percent had IgG antibodies to H. pylori. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of mild serum vitamin B12 deficiency in young Costa Rican subjects is as high as in other Latin American countries. More investigation should be done to elucidate the etiological factors that are generating deficient and marginal serum cobalamin levels in Costa Rican adults in order to define appropriate public health actions.

OBJETIVO: Aunque estudios recientes han demostrado un incremento en el déficit moderado de cobalamina (vitamina B12) sérica en algunos países de América Latina, no hay datos de Costa Rica. El propósito de este trabajo fue determinar la prevalencia de la deficiencia de vitamina B12 sérica en jóvenes adultos de Costa Rica y estudiar algunos factores que pueden ayudar a explicar las concentraciones séricas de cobalamina. MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio transversal para determinar los niveles de vitamina B12 en el suero de 400 adultos de 20 a 40 años de edad de zonas urbanas y rurales del valle central de Costa Rica. Adicionalmente, se estudió la ingesta de cobalamina en la dieta y la presencia de anticuerpos IgG contra Helicobacter pylori, como posibles factores determinantes de las concentraciones séricas de vitamina B12. RESULTADOS: La concentración media de vitamina B12 en el suero fue de 268 ± 125 pmol/L; no se encontraron diferencias significativas entre los sexos ni entre las áreas de residencia. Estos datos demostraron una prevalencia general de niveles insuficientes de cobalamina sérica de 42,4 por ciento (11,2 por ciento con déficit y 31,2 por ciento con concentraciones marginales); de las personas estudiadas más de 50 por ciento -aunque menos de 75 por ciento- tenían una ingesta de vitamina B12 por debajo del valor de las necesidades promedio estimadas para los Estados Unidos de América y 61,2 por ciento tenía anticuerpos contra H. pylori. CONCLUSIONES: La prevalencia de deficiencia moderada de vitamina B12 sérica en jóvenes costarricenses es tan elevada como en otros países latinoamericanos. Se necesitan más investigaciones para aclarar los factores etiológicos que producen niveles insuficientes y marginales de cobalamina sérica en los adultos de Costa Rica para poder definir intervenciones sanitarias apropiadas.

Prevalence of mild serum vitamin B(12) deficiency in rural and urban Costa Rican young adults.

OBJECTIVE: Recent studies have shown an increase of mild serum cobalamin (vitamin B(12)) deficiency in some Latin American countries; however, no data are available from Costa Rica. The purpose of this work was to establish the prevalence of serum vitamin B(12) deficiency among Costa Rican young adults and to study some factors that may help explain the serum cobalamin concentrations. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 400 adults aged 20 to 40 years old from urban and rural areas of the central valley of Costa Rica to determine serum vitamin B(12) levels. Additionally, cobalamin dietary intake and the detection of Helicobacter pylori IgG antibodies were studied as possible determinants of the serum vitamin B(12) concentrations. RESULTS: The mean serum concentration of vitamin B(12) was 268 +/- 125 pmol/L, and no significant differences were found by gender or area. Study data indicate an overall prevalence of inadequate serum cobalamin levels of 42.4% (11.2% deficient and 31.2% marginal); more than 50% but less than 75% of individuals had an intake of vitamin B(12) below the U.S. Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and 61.2% had IgG antibodies to H. pylori. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of mild serum vitamin B(12) deficiency in young Costa Rican subjects is as high as in other Latin American countries. More investigation should be done to elucidate the etiological factors that are generating deficient and marginal serum cobalamin levels in Costa Rican adults in order to define appropriate public health actions.

[Serum total homocysteine and lipoproteins levels in young adults from urban and rural areas of Costa Rica]. / Niveles séricos de homocisteína total y lipoproteínas en adultos jóvenes de áreas rurales y urbanas de Costa Rica.

Serum total homocysteine and lipoproteins levels in young adults from urban and rural areas of Costa Rica. This study evaluated the lipid profile and the serum levels of total homocysteine of 400 adults aged 20 to 40 years, residents of rural and urban areas of the central valley of Costa Rica. The results showed that the proportion of subjects from urban areas with high levels of LDL-C (= 4.13 mmol/L) was 11% higher than the proportion of adults from rural areas (29.2% and 18.0%, p = 0.045). On the contrary, the proportion of rural subjects with low HDL-C levels (< 1.03 mmol/ L) was higher 19% than the proportion of urban adults (56.0% and 75.3%, p = 0.001). Rural residents also showed higher serum levels of triglycerides and total homocysteine than the urban residents, although the differences were not significant (TG: 1.94 mmol/L and 2.02 mmol/L, p = 0.529; TH: 9.33 micromol/L and 9.84 micromol/L, p = 0.145). The prevalences of hyperhomocysteinemia (>15 micromol/L), hypercholesterolemia (= 5.17 mmol/L) and hypertriglyceridemia (= 1.69 mmol/L) in the studied population were 5.8%, 53.6% and 50.1% respectively. 82% of the studied population had LDL-C levels above 2.58 mmol/L and approximately 61% of the adults had HDL-C levels lower than 1.03 mmol/L. Our data suggest that the studied costarrican population has a very high cardiovascular risk. The prevalence of low levels of HDL-C (< 1.03 mmol/L), marginal levels of total homocysteine and a tendency to have high levels of triglycerides were the most outstanding cardiovascular risk factors found in this population, specially in rural subjects, which could be associated with the quality of the diet of these habitants. It is necessary to develop effective intervention strategies to promote healthy lifestyles in the population in order to reduce the cardiovascular mortality rates in Costa Rica.

Genetic, dietary, and other lifestyle determinants of serum homocysteine levels in young adults in Costa Rica.

OBJECTIVE: Elevated serum total homocysteine (tHcy) is considered an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The objective of this study was to develop the first-ever information on the prevalence of hyperhomocysteinemia and its determinants in a population in Costa Rica. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine serum levels of tHcy, vitamin B(12), folate, and creatinine, as well as the presence of the genotype TT for the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) enzyme. Additionally, dietary vitamin intakes and other lifestyle risk factors were assessed. A total of 399 Costa Rican adults from the central valley of the country (where the capital city, San José, is located), aged 20 to 40 years, participated in this study in the year 2000. Analyses of variance were performed for continuous variables, and the chi-square test was used for categorical data. Spearman correlation tests were calculated to determine associations between variables. Three linear regression analyses and one binary logistic model were developed in order to determine the predictors for homocysteine levels in the population studied. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of hyperhomocysteinemia (>15 micromol/L) in the population was 6%, 31% of the population were in the range of 10 to 15 micromol/L, 29% had the genotype TT for the enzyme MTHFR, 18% presented a vitamin B(12) deficiency (<165 pmol/L), and none of the persons had low serum folate levels (<7.0 nmol/L). No significant associations were found between tHcy and age, smoking, consuming alcohol, or dietary vitamin intake. CONCLUSIONS: Only serum vitamin B(12) levels and the genotype TT of the enzyme MTHFR were considered significant predictors of high serum tHcy levels in the Costa Rica population studied.